One of the most interesting and perhaps best-studied plant bacterial interactions is between rhizobial species and economically important leguminous plants (soybean, alfalfa, beans, peas, etc.). Rhizobia are generally described as root-nodule-forming nitrogen-fixing symbionts belonging to one of five species, Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Azorhizobium, and Mesorhizobium. The S. meliloti (Sinorhizobium meliloti) genome consists of a circular chromosome and two large circular elements (mega plasmids), one of which is essential for growth and Quorum-sensing (Ref.1 & 2). In this Gram-negative bacterium the metabolism of amino acids like Glycine is indispensable for functioning of one-carbon metabolism and for the establishment of a fully effective,[..]

Glycine and Serine are two interconvertible non-essential amino acids found abundantly in almost all cell types. They serve as active ligands for many metabolic pathways where they aid in the synthesis of other essential metabolites, such as Glycogen, Glyoxylate and Pyruvate, which are of immense importance for many cellular and biological processes. The metabolic pathway that correlates Glycine and Serine in R. norvegicus (Rattus norvegicus) has a relation with metabolism of the indispensable amino acid Threonine (Ref.1).L-Serine is a major source of one-carbon units in mammals. It serves as a building block for protein synthesis and is modified in different metabolic pathways for the generation of several essential compounds, such as Glycine, D-Serine, Cysteine,[..]

Glycine and Serine are two non-essential neurotrophic amino acids that play an essential role in neuronal development and function in M. musculus (Mus musculus). They share similar neurotrophic effects in promoting neuronal survival and differentiation of sensory ganglia, hippocampal neurons, and cerebellar Purkinje cells. In M. musculus, interplay between Glycine and Serine in a co-existence with L-Threonine represent a major metabolic crossroad that links several other biological pathways of immense importance. L-Serine serves as a building block of proteins, and is of vital importance for the syntheses of L-Cysteine, Phosphatidyl-L-Serine, nucleotides, and the neuromodulators D-Serine and Glycine (Ref.1). L-Serine is a precursor for the synthesis of membrane[..]

Glycine and Serine are two non-essential amino acids in humans, which have important roles in the Central Nervous System. Serine, a constituent of brain proteins and nerve coverings, is important in various processes like dendritic outgrowth, formation of cell membranes, metabolism of Purines and Pyrimidines, Myelin formation and muscle synthesis, synthesis of nucleotides and neuroactive amino acids like D-Serine and Glycine. As a building block of proteins and membrane lipids, it is required for metabolism of fats, cell and tissue growth and in the immune system, it assists in the production of immunoglobulins/antibodies. Serine derivatives are important components of the membrane phospholipids, whereas Glycine is the simplest, optically inactive, and the second most[..]

Amino acids are not only the building blocks of proteins, but also serve as precursors for other important plant metabolites and constitute an essential part of human and animal diets. The biosynthesis and degradation of the twenty standard Amino acids represent the complexity and ingenuity of metabolism at its most astounding. Plants are able to generate all 20 Amino acids necessary for protein synthesis by themselves. They do even synthesize some more Amino acids.  Glycine and Serine are two Interconvertible Amino acids that play an important role in C1 metabolism. Glycine is the simplest Amino acid and is the only Amino acid that is not optically active. On a molar basis, Glycine is the second most common Amino acid found in proteins and enzymes being[..]

The amino-acid derived polyamines have long been associated with cell growth and cancer, and specific oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes regulate polyamine metabolism. Polyamines are organic cations that are derived from amino acids and occur in all organisms. Putrescine, Spermidine and Spermine are the main polyamines found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Polyamines are essential for the growth and function of normal cells. They interact with various macromolecules, both electrostatically and covalently and, as a consequence, have a variety of cellular effects. At physiological pH, polyamines carry a positive charge on each nitrogen atom and it has been suggested that polyamines are simply ‘supercations’, equivalent to one or two calcium or magnesium[..]

Methylococcus capsulatus is an obligate, Gram-negative methanotroph. It generally use the greenhouse gas Methane as a sole carbon and energy source for growth, thus playing major roles in global carbon cycles, and in particular, substantially reducing emissions of biologically generated Methane to the atmosphere. Methylococcus capsulatus is the first complete genome sequence reported from an obligate methanotroph. Genome analysis suggests the ability of M. capsulatus to scavenge copper (including a previously unreported nonribosomal peptide synthetase) and to use copper in regulation of methanotrophy, but the exact regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. The existence of previously unsuspected metabolic flexibility in M. capsulatus, including an ability to grow on[..]

Sterols are a structurally conserved class of lipids that play multifaceted roles in Eukaryotes, serving as essential components of Cell membranes and precursors to Steroid hormones. Characterized by a –OH group on the C3 of the Steroid nucleus, Sterols represent the most abundant type of Steroids in Vertebrates as well as in Plants. In Vertebrates, Cholesterol is by far the major Sterol, whereas a mixture of various Sterols is present in higher plants. The major Sterol is typically Sitosterol, followed by Campesterol, Stigmasterol, and various minor sterols like Isofucosterol, Brassicasterol and Cholesterol. Functional roles for the Campesterol-derived BRs (Brassinosteroids) are established for integrating light signals in the regulation of postembryonic plant[..]

ATP Binding Cassette transporters comprise a large family of membrane-spanning proteins that are responsible for transporting a variety of substrates in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The most intriguing and, arguably, the most important membrane proteins for this purpose are the ABC (ATP-Binding Cassette) transporters. These proteins, found in all species, use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to translocate specific substrates across cellular membranes. Many of these transporters are responsible for the translocation of lipophilic substrates such as phospholipids, bile acids, and sterols (Ref.1 & 2).Beta-Sitosterol and other plant sterols are directly transported back to the gut lumen by the heterodimeric ABCG5-ABCG8 complex by means of a sort of kickback mechanism, which[..]

Y. pestis (Yersinia pestis) strand KIM belongs to biovar Mediaevalis. Y. pestis is actually catagorized into three subtypes or biovars; Antiqua, Medievalis, and Orientalis, each associated with a major pandemic and it is believed that Y. pestis is a clone that evolved from Y. pseudotuberculosis (Yersinia pseudotuberculosis) about 1.5 to 20 thousand years ago. Biovar Mediaevalis is thought to have descended from the bacteria that caused the second pandemic, the Black Death. The Black Death came in three forms, the bubonic, pneumonic, and septicemic. Each different form of plague killed people in a vicious way. All forms were caused by a bacterium called Y. pestis. This Coccobacillus is rod shaped, Gram-negative, and non-motile but has two distinct flagellar gene[..]

Like many bacteria, yeast species can form biofilms on several surfaces. C. albicans (Candida albicans) colonizes in the surfaces of catheters, prostheses, and epithelia, forming biofilms that are extremely resistant to anti-fungal drugs. The protein Gcn4 (Transcriptional Activator Gcn4), a regulator of amino acid metabolism, is required for normal biofilm growth. The biochemical mechanisms including activation of the sulfur-amino acid biosynthesis pathway is a feature of C. albicans biofilms. For such reasons the metabolism of Glycine, Serine and Threonine is of vital importance as it regulates morphogenesis and virulence in C. albicans. Yeasts also use L-Serine or L-Threonine as sole nitrogen source for their survival. L-Threonine is generally synthesized from[..]

Y. pestis (Yersinia pestis), the Gram-negative Coccobacillus belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae is the causative agent of Plague and is arguably the deadliest pathogen in history. It is one of several agents likely to be used as a biological weapon in a bioterrorism event. Yersinia sp. is responsible for disease syndromes ranging from Gastroenteritis to Plague. Y. pestis is actually categorized into three subtypes or biovars; Antiqua, Medievalis, and Orientalis, each associated with a major pandemic. Y. pestis strand CO92 is in the biovar Orientalis. The biovar Orientalis bacteria are responsible for the modern Plague. Y. pestis CO92 has a circular chromosome that is 4.65Mb in size. Strain CO92 has one less rRNA operon than strain KIM (Ref.1). Y. pestis is rod shaped[..]