Vitamin-A (all-trans-Retinol), one of the essential micronutrient in the human is obtained chiefly in form of Retinyl Esters from meat, and Carotenoids, such as Beta-Carotene, from plant tissue. Beta-carotene and other Carotenoids are converted by the body into Retinol and are referred to as Provitamin-A Carotenoids. Hundreds of different Carotenoids are synthesized by plants, but only about 10 percent of them are Provitamin-A Carotenoids (Ref.1). The main site for synthesis and storage of Vitamin-A is in the liver. The pRBPs (Plasma Retinol-Binding Proteins) and Ttr (Transthyretin) facilitate the transfer of insoluble Vitamin-A between tissues, principally from storage sites in the liver to peripheral tissues. In the absence of pRBPs and Ttr the supply of Vitamin-A to[..]

Glutathione is a tripeptide present in Yersinia sp., which is composed of Glutamate, Cysteine and Glycine, and has numerous important functions within cells. Yersinia sp. is responsible for disease syndromes ranging from gastroenteritis to plague. Y. pestis is categorized into three subtypes or biovars; Antiqua, Medievalis, and Orientalis, each associated with a major pandemic. The strain Y. pestis KIM belongs to biovar Mediaevalis and is associated with the second pandemic, including the Black Death (Ref.1).Glutathione metabolism in Y. pestis involves both the synthesis of Glutathione and its catabolism. Glutathione biosynthesis starts from an L-Amino acid, which in presence of the enzyme Gamma-GT (Gamma-Glutamyltranspeptidase) forms L-Gamma-Glutamyl-L-Amino acid and[..]

Yersinia sp. is responsible for disease syndromes ranging from gastroenteritis to plague. Y. pestis is categorized into three subtypes or biovars; Antiqua, Mediaevalis, and Orientalis, each associated with a major pandemic. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis is the least common of the three main Yersinia species to cause infections in humans. It is primarily a zoonotic infection with variable hosts, including domestic and sylvatic animals. The condition has been associated with food-borne infection, including a few outbreaks. The organism primarily leads to a gastroenteritis (diarrheal component uncharacteristic) characterized by a self-limited mesenteric lymphadenitis mimicking appendicitis. Postinfectious complications include erythema nodosum and reactive arthritis. Thus,[..]

Xylella fastidiosa is a Gram-negative, fastidious, xylem-limited bacterium that causes a range of economically important plant diseases. It causes citrus variegated chlorosis-a serious disease of orange trees. It is responsible for pathogenicity and virulence involving toxins, antibiotics and ion sequestration systems (Ref.1 & 2). X. fastidiosa Temecula-1 is 2.52MB. It is isolated from a naturally infected grapevine with Pierce's disease in a wine-grape-growing region of California. This disease is characterized by wilted, shriveled, raisin-like fruits and scorched leaves that detach, leaving bare petioles attached to the canes. This devastating disease is a major threat to the viability of the California wine industry (Ref.3).Glutathione is a tripeptide[..]

Yersinia sp. is responsible for disease syndromes ranging from gastroenteritis to plague. Y. pestis is categorized into three subtypes or biovars; Antiqua, Mediaevalis, and Orientalis, each associated with a major pandemic. Y. pestis strain CO92 belongs to biovar Orientalis that are responsible for the current pandemic (modern plague). Glutathione is a tripeptide present in Yersinia sp., which is composed of Glutamate, Cysteine and Glycine, and has numerous important functions within cells. The tripeptide is the thiol compound, present in the highest concentration in all types of cells (Ref.1).Glutathione metabolism in Y. pestis involves both the synthesis of Glutathione and its catabolism. Glutathione biosynthesis starts from 5-Oxoproline (OP) the lactam of[..]

Shigella is a Gram-negative, non-sporulating, facultative anaerobic bacterium that causes Dysentery or Shigellosis in man. Shigella is highly invasive in the colon and the rectum, and is able to proliferate in the host cell cytoplasm, triggering an inflammatory reaction. The strain S. flexneri 2457T harbors four plasmids, which remains to be completed. Glutathione metabolism in Shigella occurs within cells in two closely linked, enzymatically controlled reactions that utilize ATP and draw on nonessential amino acids as substrates. Glutathione is a tripeptide, composed of glutamate, cysteine and glycine, and has numerous important functions within the bacterial cell. This tripeptide is specifically a thiol compound, present in the highest concentration in all types of[..]

Glutathione is a sulfhydryl (-SH) antioxidant, antitoxin, and enzyme cofactor. It is ubiquitous in animals, plants, and microorganisms, and being water soluble is found mainly in the cell cytosol and other aqueous phases of the living system. It cannot enter most cells directly and therefore must be made available inside the cell from its three constituent amino acids: Glycine, Glutamate and Cysteine. The rate at which glutathione can be made depends on the availability of Cysteine, which is relatively scarce in foodstuffs. Furthermore, the Cysteine molecule has a sulfur-containing portion which gives the whole Glutathione molecule its ‘biochemical activity’. Cysteine can also enter the Glutathione metabolism through several other metabolic pathways like[..]

Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica is a subspecies of Salmonella enterica, the rod-shaped, flagellated, aerobic, Gram-negative bacterium. Many of the pathogenic serovars of the S. enterica species are in this subspecies, including that responsible for typhoid. Salmonella is classified into >2500 serovars. Among the >2500 Salmonella serovars, several serovars have been identified as major pathogens to humans and domestic animals, including Salmonella Typhimurium, Enteritidis, Typhi, Newport, Heidelberg and Paratyphi A (Ref.1). Six subspecies of S. enterica are currently recognized in Salmonella enterica. Subspecies I (subspecies enterica) is responsible for nearly all infections in humans and warm-blooded animals, while five other subspecies are isolated[..]

Streptomycetes are soil dwelling, Gram-positive, GC-rich bacteria belonging to the class Actinobacteria. They have a unique capacity to produce novel bioactive compounds and are the most known to produce metabolites like antibiotics, immunosuppressants, antivirals and herbicides. Filamentous Streptomyces bacteria produce bioactive secondary metabolites that account for more than half of all known antibiotics as well as anticancer, anti-helminthic and immunosuppressant drugs (Ref.1). Streptomycetes starin Streptomyces coelicolor is amongst the best studied representatives of the genus Streptomyces, which is the largest genus within the Actinobacteria. Streptomycetes have a remarkably complex developmental life cycle and the capacity to produce a plethora of natural[..]

Shigella is a Gram-negative, non-sporulating, facultative anaerobic bacterium that causes Dysentery or Shigellosis in man. Shigella is highly invasive in the colon and the rectum, and is able to proliferate in the host cell cytoplasm, triggering an inflammatory reaction. S. flexneri 2a strain, 301 has been recently sequenced (Ref.1). Glutathione metabolism in Shigella occurs within cells in two closely linked, enzymatically controlled reactions that utilize ATP and draw on nonessential amino acids as substrates. Glutathione is a tripeptide, composed of glutamate, cysteine and glycine, and has numerous important functions within the bacterial cell. This tripeptide is specifically a thiol compound, present in the highest concentration in all types of cells (Ref.2).During[..]

Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) is a unicellular fungus, possessing a nuclear genomic DNA of 12068 kilobases (kb) organized in 16 chromosomes. Its genome has been completely sequenced by Goffeau et al. 1996 and was found to contain approximately 6000 genes, of which, 5570 are predicted to be protein-encoding genes. S. cerevisiae has been an essential component of human civilization because of its extensive use in food and beverage fermentation in which it has a high commercial significance. S. cerevisiae is involved in the production of many fermented beverages, such as wine, beer and cider; distilled beverages, such as rum, vodka, whisky, brandy, and sake; whereas in other alcoholic beverages worldwide, from fruits, honey, and tea (Ref.1). During the[..]

Glutathione is a sulfhydryl (-SH) antioxidant, antitoxin, and enzyme cofactor. It is ubiquitous in animals, plants, and microorganisms, and being water soluble is found mainly in the cell cytosol and other aqueous phases of the living system. Glutathione is composed of Glutamate, Cysteine and Glycine that has numerous important functions within cells. The tripeptide Glutathione is part of an integrated antioxidant system that protects cells and tissues from oxidative damage. Oxidative stress can result from exposure to excessive amounts of endogenous and exogenous electrophiles (Ref.1). Glutathione exists in two forms. The antioxidant "reduced Glutathione" tripeptide is conventionally called Glutathione and abbreviated GSH; the oxidized form is a[..]