Pathways

CTLs (Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes) and NK (Natural Killer) cells are the key immune effectors that eradicate infected cells or tumors. To destroy these targets, CTLs and NK cells mostly use the granule exocytosis pathway, which releases perforin and Granzymes from cytolytic granules into the immunological synapse formed with the target. Granzyme-A and Granzyme-B, the most abundant Granzymes,[..]

Cells are constantly under threat from the cytotoxic and mutagenic effects of DNA damaging agents that result from either endogenous sources (cellular metabolic processes) or exogenous sources (environmental factors). Endogenous sources of DNA damage include hydrolysis, oxidation, alkylation, and mismatch of DNA bases; sources for exogenous DNA damage include ionizing radiation (IR),[..]

WNT signaling pathways play essential roles in cellular proliferation, differentiation and cell migration during embryonic development. The importance of WNT signaling is indicated by conservation of its molecular components across organisms ranging from nematodes to humans. WNT pathways are classified into canonical WNT/CTNNB or non-canonical (β-catenin-independent) pathways. Canonical[..]

Hydrolytic deamination of cytosine to uracil is a major source of genome instability in human cells.  This mutagenic process is mostly enhanced in single stranded DNA . Single stranded DNA can be found in transcribed genes, near forks, in mitochondrial DNA as well as in breathing DNA. It is believed to be much higher in replicating cells as compared to non-replicating cells. The cytosine[..]

Innate immune system plays an important role in immune responses against pathogen invasion in vertebrates and invertebrates. In mammalian systems, it provides the first line of defense against multiple pathogens, whereas in insects, the entire immune system is innate. The Toll pathway plays important functions in innate immunity against infectious pathogens in vertebrates and invertebrates.[..]

IP3 (Inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate), also known as a second messenger, is a molecule that functions to transfer a chemical signal received by the cell, such as from a hormone, neurotransmitters, growth factors and hypertrophic stimuli such as AngII (Angiotensin-II), Beta-adrenergic receptor agonists, and ET1 (Endothelin-1) to various signaling networks within the cell. IP3 is known to play a[..]

Mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation (FAO) and its key rate-limiting enzyme, the carnitine palmitoyltransferase (CPT) system, are important for energy homeostasis in situations like fasting or during exercise. They also regulate host immune responses and the deficiency or over-activation of CPT may cause energy metabolism disorder that may lead to many diseases starting from inflammatory[..]

The Malate (L-Malic Acid)-Asp (Aspartate or L-Aspartate or Aspartic Acid) Shuttle of mammalian systems is more complex but more energy efficient. Mitochondrial NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) is reduced by cytosolic NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide, Reduced) through the intermediate reduction and subsequent regeneration of OAA (Oxaloacetate) (Ref.1). In the cytosol, the shuttle[..]

Androgens are recognized as genotropic inducers of a number of physiological functions mainly associated with the development of sexual characteristics. Androgens promote the growth and differentiation of prostate cells through ligand activation of the AR (Androgen Receptor) (Ref.1&2). The AR, upon activation by Androgens, mediates transcription of target genes that modulate growth and[..]

NF-KappaB (Nuclear factor-KappaB)/Rel proteins are dimeric, sequence-specific transcription factors involved in the activation of an exceptionally large number of genes in response to inflammation, viral and bacterial infections, and other stressful situations requiring rapid reprogramming of gene expression. NF-kappB pathway is crucial for the regulation of immune responses, inflammation, and[..]