Pathways

CTLA4 (CD152) is a member of a class of cell surface molecules capable of terminating early events in the receptor-mediated signaling cascade. It is a 41–43 kDa,type 1 transmembrane glycoprotein of the immunoglobin superfamily having 223 amino acids in length. The extracellular architecture of CTLA4 is characterized by a single IgV-like domain containing the B7- 1 (CD80)/B7-2 (CD86)[..]

The MAPK (Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase) cascades play a pivotal role in many aspects of cellular functions, and are evolutionarily conserved from yeast to mammals. In Saccharomyces. cerevisiae, there are five MAP kinase signal transduction pathways that regulate mating, filamentous growth, high osmolarity response, maintenance of cellular integrity, and ascospore formation. The[..]

Vegetative yeast cells respond to environmental cues by activating signal transduction pathways that enable them to mount the appropriate physiological response. Each of the cues is dealt with by distinct signaling mechanisms to cause the appropriate response to a given stimulus. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisae, there are at least five MAP kinase (Mitogen-Activated[..]

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the lining of the synovial joints and is associated with progressive disability, premature death, and socioeconomic burdens.It is characterized by chronic inflammation and synovial hyperplasia that eventually lead to cartilage and bone destruction. Synovial fibroblasts are mesenchymal cells recognized as a[..]

Extracellular environmental changes cause different types of stress in all the organisms and can seriously affect the viability of the cells. All cells have signaling pathways required to transmit the stress signals from outside and to develop the response and gene expression changes required to adapt and survive. Cell Integrity Pathway signaling is activated persistently in response to[..]

The CTLs (Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes), also known as killer T-Cells are produced during cell-mediated immunity designed to remove body cells displaying "foreign" epitope, such as virus-infected cells, cells containing intracellular bacteria, and cancer cells with mutant surface proteins. The CTLs are able to kill these cells by inducing a programmed cell death known as apoptosis (Ref.1).

CTLs[..]

Photoreceptors and circadian clocks are univesal mechanisms for sensing and responding to the light environment. In addition to regulating daily activities, photoreceptors and circadian clocks are also involved in the seasonal regulation of processes such as flowering. Circadian rhythms govern many plant processes, including movements of organs such as leaves and petals, stomata opening, stem[..]

Circadian clocks are internal timekeepers that utilize environmental signals to induce cellular events to occur at the most favourable time of day. Circadian clocks in animals, plants, fungi and bacteria have similar characteristic properties and molecular architecture. They have a periodicity of approximately 24 hours, persist in constant conditions and can be reset by environmental time cues[..]

The unicellular cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus is an obligate photoautotroph and the simplest model organism in circadian biology. Circadian rhythms, regulated by a 24-h biological clock, enable the coordination of biological activity over the course of the day and facilitate adaptation to daily environmental changes in diverse organisms. Unlike the circadian[..]

Apoptosis, necroptosis, and pyroptosis are the three major ways of PCD(programed cell death) following virus infection. Among them, apoptosis is the most extensively investigated PCD during viral infection. Apoptosis elicited by virus infection has both negative and positive influence on viral replication.Apoptosis is triggered by two distinct signaling pathways, namely the intrinsic and[..]

Our bones get more brittle with increasing age, and to add insult to injury, the most effective therapy for another problem that is associated with getting older, rheumatoid arthritis, often adds to the problem by causing bone resorption. The Glucocorticoid steroids, are the best available anti-inflammatories, and are used widely in the treatment of arthritis, as well as other inflammatory[..]

Cell cycle arrest in response to DNA damage is an important mechanism for maintaining genomic integrity. This cell cycle arrest provides time for DNA repair to prevent replication or segregation of damaged DNA. Induction of growth arrest by DNA damage occurs mainly through the activation of checkpoint pathways that delay cell cycle progression at G1, S, and G2 (Ref.1 and 2).

In[..]